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Impact of Real Estate Laws in India and USA

By: Raj Mehta 

What is Real Estate means?

Real Estate is real property that consists of land and improvements, which include buildings, fixtures, roads, structures, and utility systems. Property rights give a title of ownership to the land, improvements and natural resources such as minerals, plants, animals, water, etc.[1]

Real estate law is the area of law that governs buying, using and selling land. It’s the law that governs how people acquire property and what they can do with the property that they own. Real estate law is also called real property law. Real estate law is called real estate because it’s about real property. Real property is land as opposed to personal property which is objects. Fixtures that are permanently on the land like buildings or other large structures are also a part of real property.

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Types of Real Estate

There are several types of real estate. The main categories are:-

  1. Land

Land is the baseline for all types of real property. Land typically refers to undeveloped property and vacant land. Developers acquire land and combine it with other properties and rezone it so they can increase the density and increase the value of the property.

  1. Residential

Residential real estate consists of housing for individuals, families, or groups of people. This is the most common type of estate and is the asset class that most people are familiar with. Within residential, there are single-family homes, apartments, townhouses & other types of living arrangements.

  1. Commercial

Commercial property refers to land and buildings that are used by businesses to carry out their operations. Examples include shopping malls, individual stores, office buildings.

  1. Industrial

Industrial real estate refers to land and buildings that are used by industrial businesses for activities such as factories, research and development, construction.

 What is Real Estate Contracts?

In the Real Estate sector, the contracts regulating the transfer and use of immovable property are generally in the nature of agreements for sale, sale deeds, development agreements, lease deeds and leave and license agreements. The impact of Force Majeure event is considered on some of the aforesaid contracts as under:

  1. Sale Deed:
    • Acts as a evidence of sale and transfer of ownership of property in favor of the buyer
    • Acts as the main document for further sale by the buyer
    • Things to ensure as a buyer:
      • Title of the seller
      • Check whether there is any charge or encumbrance on the property
      • Ensure that all clearances, approvals, and permissions to transfer or sell the property has been addressed
      • All the pages of the deed to be signed
      • Deed should be witnessed by at least two witnesses
      • Finally, get it registered at the jurisdictional sub-registrar office.
      • Details of the parties
  1. Lease Deed:
    • If the term of lease is exceeding one year or reserving yearly rent has to be registered.
    • This agreement binds both lessor and the lessee for the decided duration
    • Things to ensure:
      • The subject matter of lease must be immovable property
      • Duration of lease should be fixed
      • No interest passes to the lessee before execution
      • Termination clauses can be included based on requirements
      • Details of the parties
  1. Leave and License:
    • There is no transfer of the interest of property as that of Lease
    • Licensee acquires personal right to occupy the property
    • Things to ensure:
      • Duration of the rights
      • Details of the parties involved
      • Details of the property
      • Terms of agreement
  1. Mortgage Deed:
    • The funds lent against which the property is used as security is the mortgage money.
    • The Agreement which instruments the transfer is mortgage Deed
    • Things to ensure:
      • Enforceability and validity depends on the type of mortgage
      • Cross verify the agreed interest rate
      • Tenure of the land should be checked up and mentioned
      • Provision for payment of the amount due in the event of mortgagor failing to pay interest

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INDIA

Real state in India is governed infected by a combination of federal and state specific laws. This is largely because, in accordance with article 246 of the Constitution land is the subject matter of state list or less second of the seventh schedule of the Constitution of India, which covers subjects for which only state can legislate, while transfer of property other than the challan, registration of deeds and documents and contracts other than for agriculture land fall under the concurrent list or list third of the seventh schedule of the Constitution of India, which are subject for which both Centre and states can legislate. Additionally, since India is a country with diverse sects, Laws relating to aspects such as devolution inheritance et cetera draw a large influence from various customs and practices, in addition to codified laws. Over the years various judicial presidents and judgements have also adjudicated upon various aspects relating to real state which are either binding or have a strong relevance value, depending upon the form or court which adjudicated.

 The main laws which regulate real estate in India are:

  • The Transfer of Property Act, 1882
  • RERA (Real Estate Regulatory Authority) Act, 2016
  • The Registration Act, 1908
  • Stamp duty has to be paid as per state requirements
  • For Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) FEMA( Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999) also apply
  • Investors have to abide by local laws and bylaws
  • Clearance as per environmental laws have to be taken before starting with any project for construction of immovable property
  • The specific relief Act, 1963
  • Other labour laws including for regulating minimum wages and safety insurance provisions
  • Land Acquisition Act, 2013

 Impact of Real Estate Laws &Contracts in India

  1. Timely delivery of flats: Developers often make false promises about the completion date of the project, but hardly ever deliver. As per the bill, strict regulations will be enforced on builders to ensure that construction runs on time and flats are delivered on schedule to the buyer.
  2. Furnishing of accurate project details: In the construction stage, builders promote their projects defining the various amenities and features that will be part of the project. But not everything goes as per plan, with several features missing. As per this bill, there can’t be any changes to a plan. And if a builder is found guilty of this, he/she will be penalized 10% of the project’s costs or face jail time of up to three years.
  3. Specifying carpet area: Generally, builders sell flats on the basis of built-in area, which includes a common passage area, stairs and other spaces which are 20-30% more than the actual flat’s area. But, not all buyers are aware of the concept of carpet area. With this bill it will become mandatory to declare the actual carpet area.
  4. All clearances are mandatory before beginning a project: Builders often attract buyers with huge discounts and pre-launch offers. And, the buyer, enticed by the offers, does not bother about the clearance. But, due to delays in getting clearance, the buyer does not get the flat on time. This bill ensures that developers get all the clearances before selling flats.
  5. Each project should have a separate bank account: Developers raise funds through pre-launch offers and use them to purchase some other land or invest it in other projects. This bill will make it compulsory that a separate bank account be maintained for each project. Each transaction will have to be recorded, and diversion to another project will not be entertained.
  6. 6. After sales service: As per an interesting clause in the bill, if the buyer finds any structural deficiency in the development of the building, the buyer can contact the builder for after sales service. But, the buyer should approach the builder within a year of purchase to rectify such defects without further charges.[2]

USA

Real estate laws & Contracts

Each state within the United States follows a mix of statutory and common-law. There are three levels of law in US:-federal, state and local. Under a common law changes in law come by way of case law and a new legislation, each of which is given equal weight. Rules on parent evidence and requirements that agreement in writing to be in force where is from state to state. Courts will generally rely on the express terms of document unless the intent of the parties is unclear. Courts in the US may consider the conduct of the parties in if the terms of the document are in question is ambiguous. In general, contracts for the sale or transfer of real state should be in writing.

Real estate transactions are governed by a wide body of federal statutes and a combination of state statutes and common law. The requirements established by state law often differ significantly from one state to the next. Real estate brokers are employed as the agent of the seller in order to obtain a buyer for their property. The contract between the broker and seller is called a listing agreement. The agreement may be an open agreement whereby the broker earns a commission only if he or she finds a buyer. It is commonly required in real estate contracts that the title to the property sold be marketable. This requires that the seller have proof of title to all the property he or she is selling and that third parties not have undisclosed interests in the title. A title insurance company or an attorney is often employed by the buyer to investigate whether the title is, indeed, marketable. Title insurance companies also insure the buyer against losses caused by the title being invalid.

In order to pass title, a deed with a proper description of the land must be executed and delivered. Some states require that the deed be officially recorded to establish ownership of the property and/or provide notice of its transfer to subsequent purchasers. The most common method of financing real estate transactions is through a mortgage.

Impact of Real Estate Laws & Contracts in USA:-

  • Clarity in business relationships, agreements, and rights of parties
  • Avoiding potential contract disputes and litigation
  • Preventing misinterpretation of communications and agreements
  • Protecting intellectual property, real property, and asset values
  • Better management of commercial relationships
  • Built-in agreements about resolving disputes through arbitration, mediation, or a court in a particular jurisdiction
  • Documentation to allow comprehensive representation and review by an experienced business law attorney[3]

 

[1] https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com

 

[2] Online ISSN 2395-602X|VOLUME 3 | ISSUE 8| 2017 IJSRST

 

[3] https://www.themyerslg.com/contract-benefits/

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Rise of Financial Institutional Arbitration

By: Yamini Daga

INTRODUCTION

Ever since now litigation has been the most used kind of system for the resolution of the disputes. Though nowadays quite many ways are available through which we can seek the resolution of the disputes like Arbitration, Mediation, Litigation, etc. Then also it is difficult for people to decide that which kind of method they want to opt in. Through time all these methods are emerging in their own fields and ways though litigation are believed to be the oldest form and most opted way. As through litigation people go to the court to seek justice and follow the same age old process.

The Arbitration is also one of a kind of dispute resolution process where the parties privately resolve their dispute as when the party faces a dispute in their agreement they seek the help of the arbitrator. Arbitrator is considered as a third party who listen to both the sides of the party and in return try to resolve their dispute by giving their decision in the form of arbitral award. This is the method where party try to resolve their disputes outside of the courtroom which seems less complex then the proper litigation process as less paperwork is required and experienced person are appointed as an Arbitrator.

Mediation is also a part of the dispute resolution process though in India there are no particular laws related to the mediation at present, but it is still opted by many parties though the decision given by a mediator is not binding in nature unlike the arbitral award which has the same binding authority like the decree passed in the court. In the process of mediation, there is a third party who helps in resolving the dispute by guiding them into the right direction through an informal meeting among the parties to the agreement.

And among all of the above mentioned few methods, arbitration has gained more preference over the age old court systems and the informal meetings with the mediator among the financial sector because of the globalization. As of nowadays people don’t have enough time to go to the court to seek remedy or justice they seek a process which is less complex and which is less time consuming. Thus the emergence of Arbitration is rising in the financial sector too.

ADVANTAGES THAT LED TO WIDENING OF ARBITRATION IN FINANCIAL SECTOR:

Firstly, the procedure of arbitration nowadays require the element of confidentiality. Like whatever is being going on the meetings are not supposed to be seen into the limelight unlike happening in the courtrooms. As there are many mergers & acquisitions cases are coming forward because of the globalization. It is a delicate situation as the sensitive information of the companies can be leaked and be used the competitors to gain an upper hand in the market and use that against the parties of arbitration. Therefore arbitration is a process where the third person who is the decision maker or the arbitrator are bound to maintain the secrecy about the case as they are part of contract to maintain the confidentiality about the parties or about the case.

Secondly, the kind of expertise which is being needed by the arbitrator generally is being lacked by the courts. The Institutional Arbitration have a well-qualified arbitrators with the specific knowledge regarding the subject matter, which in return makes it easier for the parties to seek the justice or solution to their argument.

Additionally, the proceedings of arbitration are generally custom made which provides the level of convenience to the parties by suiting the requirements laid down by the parties and applicability of the arbitral award is easier as compared to the decree or judgment of any court.

 

CUSTOM MADE SOLUTIONS[1]:

As we know, Arbitration is a process which is custom made as in the way it gives option to the parties to decide that how, when, where and in which manner they want to proceed further in the process of arbitration. It provides freedom to parties to decide their method unlike the age old court systems.

  • Parties are free to decide the seat of arbitration, like parties can decide that at which place they would like to hold the meetings and where the whole procedure should take place can be completely decided by the parties. Basically the place of arbitration is decided at the convenience of the parties.
  • Parties are free to determine the way of procedure or procedural rules, the procedural rules are to be decided by the parties in the agreement and if they fails to conclude at a mutual decision than the procedure is being set by the arbitrator themselves.
  • Parties are free to determine the language for arbitration, the language in which they want to hold their proceedings during the process of arbitration.
  • Parties are free to select their arbitrators, parties are free to choose an arbitral institution of their choice like by whom they want their case to be taken care of and the qualifications required by the arbitrator chosen by the parties can also be specified by the party.

 

 GUIDELINES THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF ARBITRATION IN THE FINANCIAL SECTOR[2]

  1. THE ISDA ARBITRATION GUIDE

The International Swaps & Derivatives Association (ISDA) in the year of 2013 September issued a guide relating to how one can use arbitration in ISDA Master Agreement. Earlier it included sample clause in the agreement, later on an expanded range of model clauses were introduced around the year 2018 for huge number of usage of institutional arbitration all over the world.

  1. P.R.I.M.E. FINANCE RULES

When courts were not able to deal with the nexus disputes arose from the financial sector thus this resulted in the creation of international finance center which is known as P.R.I.M.E. Finance. This deals with the cases related to ADR and in return provides resolution by medium if mediation, arbitration and other disputes resolving services. They have their own rules and clauses which was released with this center on 16th January 2012, situated at Hague. The reason behind opening this center was to fulfill the need of arbitration process required in the financial sectors. All the provisions made under this has only one aim that was to encourage the use of arbitration or law in the financial markets also and to provide justice to people who suffered or went through the wrongdoing or scam of others in this area.

  • THE ICC COMMISSION REPORT

This report was prepared after conversing with at least more than or about 50 financial institutions around the globe and banking counsels or sectors with various policies, awards from minimum about 13 arbitral institutions were also being examined while preparing this particular report.

This report speaks about arbitration that is being performed in the regulatory method, in international finances matters, the disputes between the banking sectors, disputes relating to trade finances, etc. and quite huge growth sectors of arbitration were also recognized in this report.

This report turns out to be were helpful in determining the rise of financial institutional arbitrations among the world by classifying the types of disputes and by recognizing the strength of arbitration process too.

  1. RECENT PROCEDURES

Previously the main purpose behind referring to the national courts over the process of arbitration was to assure speedy resolution of disputes via the judgment given in the format of summary elsewhere, in the process of arbitration the arbitrators are bound by their duty that they have to provide equal, fair and full opportunities to the respective parties of the agreement to set out their cases.

Nonetheless this thought process has been changed now, the institutional arbitration centers around the globe like the Singapore International Arbitration Center (SIAC), the Hong Kong International Arbitration Center (HKIAC), the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and many other institutions now provide the summary disposal of the disputes just like old court system which makes the process of arbitration more applicable option.

RECOGNIZED LIMITATIONS OF ARBITRATION

Though the process of arbitration is gaining its pace and being more frequently used method for resolving dispute in the financial market or sector, there are still some justifications that why sometimes this method of arbitration can be avoided. Like in few cases like the criminal cases arbitration is not possible as because these issues are not arbitrable in nature, as the third person can resolve the dispute where the parties to the agreement enter into an argument not where a person committed a crime and being guilty of murder or anything as those cases needed proper justice with the relevant punishments prescribed under the law.

The reason why people opt arbitration may be because of the myth that arbitration process are cost effective process. The Ad-hoc method of arbitration is precisely cheaper and affordable but it lacks experience and some required qualifications too that are being needed by the parties but the institutional arbitration is an expensive method.  As in the financial matters the parties sometimes doesn’t belong to same country which means a matter of cross border agreements are usually being held by the institutional arbitration centers, and it does cost a huge amount of money as the expenditure of procedure and transportation is expensive in nature. The arbitrator might also belong to a different country than any of the party to the agreement which make way for delay in the coordination between the parties to the agreement and the appointed arbitrator which ends up resulting in slow remedies.

CONCLUSION

As the P.R.I.M.E. Finance Rules, the ICC report and other initiatives are being encouraged and set as a means for resolution of disputes by the process of arbitration is being more frequently being recognized by the financial institutions or sectors.

The process of arbitration is most favorable as compared to the other methods of ADR and the age old system of litigation. Though there are many advantages and disadvantages of the process of arbitration but it will still be the most favorable option to be considered for resolving the disputes in the financial sector and the demand for arbitration will grow higher only in the near future too.

 

 

 

[1] Allen & Overy, The rise and rise of Arbitration in Banking and Finance Disputes, (2018, 9th February), http://www.allenovery.com/en-gb/global/news-and-insights/publications/the-rise-and-rise-of-arbitration-in-banking-and-finance-disputes

 

[2] Shreya Shrivastava and Sachin Bhatnagar, The Rise of Arbitration in the Financial Sector, (April 11,2020), https://lawcorner.in/the-rise-of-arbitration-in-the-financial-sector/

 

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Role of Intellectual Property in Mergers and Acquisition

By: Nidhi Poddar

Introduction 

Intellectual Property has not always horse around Merger and Acquisition deals. Intellectual Property plays a disguised role in 2 major aspects:

  1. By making certain Intellectual Property intensive industries, for example, life sciences, where the value of pharmaceuticals can often be viewed with the scope of patent protection.
  2. By making certain deal structures, for example, spin-outs and joint ventures where the rational allocation of Intellectual Property Rights is an unavoidable necessity.

Whether directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously, Intellectual Property plays a significant role in any Merger and Acquisition activity. However, it was not unusual that the acquirer decides and proceeds with the typical Acquisition, without involving Intellectual Property experts. In most Merger and Acquisition deals, the acquirer determines the valuation, negotiates principal deal terms, and even finalized the structure of transactions whether internal or external. In certain aspects, Intellectual Property is a rattler to the Merger and Acquisition train i.e. delighted to affix along but not driving with equal importance. This is evidently accurate for valuation in Merger and Acquisition deals. While valuing a business, the bankers or any other person involved will not endeavor to value Intellectual Property separately. As the valuation of Intellectual Property separately is a burdensome task. If in any case, the acquirer measures the value of Intellectual Property separately from the business, then it would not be in the acquirer’s interest as the acquirer has to pay the higher value of the business.[1]

Merger & Acquisition

Waves of Merger and Acquisition is a key feature of corporate history and has evolved significantly in India in past decades. Merger and Acquisition has become the most important aspect of growth strategy in the corporate industry. Merger and Acquisition has shown an effective result in businesses like information technology, telecommunication, business process outsourcing and pharmaceuticals. The strategy of Merger and Acquisition has proven to be a surest way to acquire competencies and funds, opening new market avenues, expanding customer base, snuffing out competition. The strategy helped the corporate industry in maintaining and improving profitability.[2] Merger and Acquisition is a tool for reconstruction of the company in order to maximize the wealth of the company and create goodwill in the global market. Merger refers to consolidation of two companies into one company. This Merger of two companies will help in maximizing profit and enhance the work and ensure that the company achieves the desired goals. Whereas Acquisition refers to a takeover of one company by another company by purchasing its ownership stake. Generally, such a stake is above 50%, which provides the acquiring company the control of management.[3]

Intellectual Property

Intellectual Property is an incorporeal Property which is invented or created by human intellect. Intellectual Properties are intangible in nature and possess a right i.e. ” Right in Rem” which means that the inventor has the right towards the property wholly. The different forms of Intellectual Property are- Copyright, Trademark, Patent, Design etc. Intellectual Property Rights refers to the legal rights possessed by the inventor or creator in order to protect the invention or the creation for a certain period of time. Intellectual Property Rights is an exclusive right to the inventor or the creator or assignee, to use, sell or dispose the invention. Intellectual Property Rights promote the economic development of the country by creating healthy competition and encouraging industrial development and economic growth within the country.[4]

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Intellectual Property is referred to as a corporation’s biggest asset. In the New Economy- Brand names i.e. (Trademarks, Service marks and Trade names), Product value, Brand value, Innovation portfolio of the company plays a pivotal role in the management of assets of the company and are equally important as the goods and services. Sounds, smells, colour and product shape comes under the trademark protection. There should be no surprise that Intellectual Property plays a crucial role in the sale or purchase of a business.[5] Intellectual Property plays a vital role in the strategic development of the corporation. Intellectual Property is one of the various reasons for which different corporations merge or acquire any company, because such Merger and Acquisition strengthens their market share and improves and makes their management system efficient.[6] With the technology advancement, the importance and the value of intellectual property of a company has enhanced. The intellectual property possessed by a company is a cornerstone, thus has increased focus on intellectual property while any commercial transaction. In the present era, it has become the most task to identify and adequately analyze the value of intellectual property of the company as it will directly impact the value of the transaction.[7]

IP due diligence

This article intends to highlight and provide a quick overview on how Intellectual Property due diligence is important in Merger and Acquisition transactions. There is great  significance of Intellectual Property due diligence in Merger and Acquisition transactions in relation to the acquisition or investment in technology and biotech companies because the main purpose of acquiring such company is to target the Intellectual Property Assets (IPA) of the company. Intellectual Property Assets mainly refers to Patents, Trademarks, Copyright. Intellectual Property due diligence refers to a deep investigation which is conducted to understand the value of the Intellectual Property of the target company before any Merger or Acquisition.[8]

Role of Intellectual Property in Merger and Acquisition:-

  1. Value addition to the company portfolio:

Merger and Acquisition of a company helps in adding value to the portfolio of a company. It is very necessary that companies evaluate the portfolio of the company and check whether the current portfolio meets the requirement of the company objective. In the present dynamic and inconstant market environment, it is not possible to invent something new, thus the companies must search for new opportunities and the ways of acquiring existing innovations of the other companies.

  1. Acquiring unique capabilities:-

Every company wishes to have a stronghold and be in a dominating position against their competitors. One of the major tools to achieve this is Merger and Acquisition. By Merger and Acquisition, a company may acquire the unique innovation or capabilities of their competitors. This will help the companies to have an edge over others. This result in changing the whole outlook of the company and creating a unique and efficient business model. 

  1. Transfer of Technology: –

A fruitful benefit of acquiring an Intellectual Property is that it allows the transfer of technology from one company to another. This helps in proper exploitation and utilization of the Intellectual Property to its full extent.

  1. Diversification: –

The Acquisition or Merger of a company helps in exploring and enhancing different sectors of a business. Merger and Acquisition open new doors of deals and growth within the market. It is very convenient to start a business through pre-existing or pre-established resources, and even this reduces the cost of operation and helps in creating a diversified asset portfolio for the company.

  1. Growth: –

The main objective to implement the corporate strategy is to promote growth and development and to maximize the profit, resulting in achieving the desired goals. The company must ensure that the product portfolio of the company is updated and is efficient to meet the current demand in the market.[9]

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Some classic example of Merger and Acquisition

  1. In 1988, Nestle acquired Rowntree business. It was the largest foreign takeover of a United Kingdom Company. In this deal, Nestle agreed to pay around US $ 4.5 Billion for Rowntree PLC. The main objective of this deal was to acquire famous brands i.e. Kit Kat, Yorkie, and Rolo.
  2. Another Classic example is Acquisition of Luxury Italian fashion house Versace by Michael Kors. The main objective of this deal is to access new product lines and markets through an established brand and IP portfolio.[10]
  3. Motorola Mobility was acquired by Google Inc. which gave the acquirer complete control of Motorola’s patents. Later Google Inc. sold Motorola Mobility to Lenovo, but retained ownership of Motorola Mobility’s Patent Portfolio. The main objective of Google Inc. was to purchase the patents of Motorola mobility.[11]
  4. Another interesting case study is the Acquisition of Rolls Royce by Volkswagen. Volkswagen has acquired all the assets required for the production of cars but was restricted to use the Logo of Rolls Royce. Volkswagen overlooked the fact that prior to the Acquisition, BMW has already acquired the access to use Rolls Royce Logo for its car.[12] BMW was a direct competitor to Volkswagen. Volkswagen purchased all rights to manufacture Rolls Royce cars but did not have engines for their car as BMW was producing engines for Rolls Royce. Rolls Royce factory was manufacturing both Rolls Royce and Bentley cars. After a lot of twists and turns, in 2003 BMW became the owner of Rolls Royce and Volkswagen is sole manufacturer of Bentley cars. This case study reiterates the importance of intellectual property due diligence before any Merger and Acquisition.

By the above stated classic examples what we get to learn from it.

In any Merger and Acquisition proper due diligence of Intellectual Property asset is a must. The nature of Merger and Acquisition is stated as risky and with the technology advancement in the present era has become riskier. Due diligence of Intellectual Property Assets must be the pertinent question before initiating a formal contact with the target company. Before contacting, the company must do some homework and must collect certain information regarding patents, trademark, copyright, goodwill etc. Needless the same amount of importance must be given to the tangible and intangible assets to get a fair valuation.[13]

Conclusion

Intellectual Property are the intangible assets of the company and plays a vital role in the expansion of the company and even add a great value to the portfolio of the company. Merger and Acquisition help in creating asset portfolio, acquire new capabilities, enhance the growth rate which ultimately help the company achieve their goals. To avoid any uncertainties or defects, a company should ensure a proper due diligence and valuation of Intellectual Property asset before acquisition of the Intellectual Property asset.

A company survival, goodwill and the profit depend on the possession of IP assets. It must be ensured that the deal benefits both the parties. Government is bringing out various policies to encourage Merger & Acquisition in India. The Land Acquisition bill, Labor Law and Good & Sale Tax (GST) will have a great impact on the corporate field.

Any company at any level or a startup company must emphasize on the importance of protecting their Intellectual Property rights. The acquiring company must conduct due diligence to improve their marketability and be able to identify weaknesses.

Due diligence is an integral part of any Merger and Acquisition transaction. Any act of negligence while performing due diligence can lead to over valuation of the company and even lead to an exposure to a unknown risk and liabilities.

[1] https://www.sullcrom.com/siteFiles/Publications/Mousavi-IAM-July-Aug-2011.pdf

 

[2] https://pdfslide.net/documents/Intellectual-Property-the-dominant-force.html

 

[3] http://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-2693-role-of-Intellectual-Property-in-an-acquisition-or-Merger.html#:~:text=Intellectual%20Property%20assets%20are%20the,such%20as%20Merger%20and%20acquisition.

 

[4]  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3217699/

 

[5] https://norrismclaughlin.com/articles/Intellectual-Property-aspects-of-Mergers-a-Acquisitions-part-i-of-ii-conducting-due-diligence/

 

[6]  https://www.udl.co.uk/insights/the-importance-of-ip-in-Mergers-and-Acquisitions

 

[7] http://www.buildingipvalue.com/05_NA/124_127.htm

 

[8] https://www.corporatelivewire.com/top-story.html?id=ip-due-diligence-in-ma-transactions

 

[9] Supra note (3)

[10]  https://www.udl.co.uk/insights/the-importance-of-ip-in-mergers-and-acquisitions

[11] https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150407005604/en/Research-Markets-Strategic-Importance-Intellectual-Property-IP

[12] https://medium.com/@ramkumar1984.rajachidambaram/how-ip-acquisition-unlocks-huge-value-in-technology-m-a-23e2739cf091

 

[13] https://www.origiin.com/2019/01/10/mergers-and-acquisitions-intellectual-property-due-diligence/

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Patent Licensing Agreements and the clauses covered under it

By: Riya Bansal

INTRODUCTION:-

In the later part of 19th century new inventions in various fields of art, processing, manufacturing, apparatuses, machinery and other substances produced by manufacturers were at upsurge. Thus, there was a threat to inventors that their inventions could be infringed easily as there was no law to refrain infringers from using or copying such inventions. So to safeguard the inventor’s interests the British rulers at that time enacted the Indian Patents and Designs Act, 1911. With the evolution of Indian political and economic conditions in the later part of the 20th century, there was need of a comprehensive law to ensure the greater effectiveness and security of the patent rights and to encourage inventors for making new and useful inventions in different fields. Therefore, the Patents Act, 1970 was enacted which repealed and replaced the 1911 Act so far as the patent law was concerned. Now there was no threat to the interests of inventors as there was an option of licensing of patents by mode of a written agreement, which is proved to be beneficial for the inventors as they could protect their inventions and at the same time grant permission to make partial use of their inventions.

PATENT:-

Patent is a monopolistic intangible right granted to a person who has invented a new and useful article or a new process of making an article. In India, such right is conferred upon the inventor through a Government issued Certificate, in which it is explicitly mentioned – what the invention is and inventor is the owner of it; and this government issued certificate is known as “Patent”. The inventor or person who invents is called “Patentee” only when his invention gets approved by Government and thereupon he can make exclusive use of his invention.

The word patent is derived from the Latin term ‘Patene’ which means ‘to open’. There is no exhaustive definition of ‘Patent’, but to get the true essence of the definition of patent one can read Section 2(1) (m) of Patent Act 1970 [1][which defines Patent] along with Section 2(1) (j) of Patent Act 1970[2] [which defines Invention].

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PATENT LICENSING:-

Patent Licensing is a contract between Patentee (known as Licensor) and Licensee; wherein licensor grants permission to a third party (known as licensee) to sell, use, exercise etc. his or her patented invention. In case of grant of Patent license the ownership of a patent remains with the patentee and mere partial use of patent is permitted. Thus partial use of patent is subject to certain terms and conditions which are agreed upon by both licensor and licensee. Since Patent Licensing is a contract, it must satisfy all the essentials mentioned under Section 10 and Section 11 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, i.e., the contract must be done between persons who are of sound mind, who have attained age of majority and who are not disqualified under any law and there must be a lawful object for a lawful consideration with the free consent of parties. There are various modes of patent licensing like Exclusive Licensing, Non – Exclusive Licensing, Voluntary Licensing, Compulsory Licensing, etc.

PATENT LICENSING AGREEMENT:-

Now a day’s Patent Licensing is used as a source of income for the patentees, as it has become the most easiest and convenient way to transform patent into a reality without incurring any financial or marketing or manufacturing expenses. With patent licensing we have to keep in mind that it is associated with an agreement through which a patent is licensed and such agreement will be considered invalid if it is unregistered and is not in writing[3].

Patent Licensing Agreement is a negotiated agreement between the licensor and licensee, wherein licensor authorizes licensee to make partial use of its patent, in compliance with the terms and conditions of the agreement, in exchange for an agreed pecuniary consideration (technically to be called as Royalty). Once the terms and conditions of the said agreement are negotiated upon, then the parties have to convert it into a written agreement so that it can be duly executed and registered in the official Register of Patents. Generally the said agreement is made, with agreed terms and conditions, for an agreed period of time, for a defined purpose, and in a definite territory.

Also we could say that the Patent Licensing Agreement is legally binding upon the parties as they have certain duties which are to be performed according to the terms and conditions of the agreement. And legally binding means that if any of the party fails to perform its duties in compliance with the terms of the agreement then the aggrieved party can sue the party committing breach accordingly, but for that it is mandatory that the Patent Licensing Agreement is to be registered as per Section 67 of the Patents Act, 1970[4].

CLAUSES OF PATENT LICENSING AGREEMENT:-

The clauses of Patent Licensing Agreement generally, defines the scope of rights and obligations of the parties and; helps in eliminating ambiguity and disputes, as they are written only after being negotiated and agreed upon mutually by both the parties. It is very crucial that the clauses of patent licensing agreement are drafted accurately so as to avoid any kind of disputes down the road. The list here in below is not exhaustive but most important and basic clauses of a patent licensing agreement are tried to be covered and clauses are to be included or excluded in the agreement considering various factors pertaining to type of patent and mutual consent of the parties.

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  • GRANT OF LICENSE

This clause mainly deals in what type of licensing is done by the licensor i.e. what type of patent licensing is granted by licensor to licensee (like exclusive license or non-exclusive license etc.) and to what extent the licensed patent can be used by the licensee.

  • TERM OF AGREEMENT

In this head the term or period to use the licensed patent under the agreement is defined and would specify the expiry of agreement which can be set even without the expiry of patent. And all date and time related conditions pertaining to use of licensed patent would be included under this head. It can be included that what would happen in case of bankruptcy or insolvency.

 

  • ROYALTY

 This is the pivotal clause to be included in every agreement because receiving Royalty is the primary objective of licensing a patent. Royalty is basically the amount of consideration to be paid by the licensee, in exchange of receiving permission for using patent, to the licensor.

Thus this clause contains terms like how the royalty payment would be made, what amount of royalty is to be paid by the licensee, what rate of royalty is to be charged (if any), how the royalty charged would be calculated i.e. through which method will the royalty to be charged will be calculated etc. Royalty rate of a patent may vary from 0.5% to 25 % depending on the licensee and type of patent.

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  • LICENSOR’S PATENTS RIGHT

This clause defines the rights of the licensor and the extent to which a licensee can use partial rights of licensor for utilizing the licensed patent to earn profits. Also licensee’s rights are to be defined.

  • LIABILITY AND INDEMNITY

The said clause helps in determining that in what all conditions a licensee would amount to be liable to compensate the licensor and whether licensee would be held completely liable or not. Also it must be elaborated that what are the duties of the parties and if such duties are not performed or if any obligations are not complied with then party in default would be liable.

  • NOTICES

Under this it is to be decided and agreed upon the method of service of Notice (like by way registered AD post or by personal delivery or by nationally recognized courier service etc.) And also it has to be decided that from what date such notice will be considered effective or when will such notice be considered effective after receipt of the notice.

  • ENTIRE AGREEMENT

It has to be discussed whether any previous existing representations or agreements pertaining to the subject matter of the present agreement are to be merged with the present one or not. And whether any changes made to the present agreement are to be validated by written consent of the parties or no such written consent is required.

  • TERMINATION OF AGREEMENT

It should be clear from this clause that what all acts would amount to termination of this agreement. And what all must be done post termination (like immediately cease use of patent by licensee, handover any profits post termination to licensor etc.)

  • DISPUTE RESOLUTION

This helps in determining whether parties would like to solve their disputes (if any) through method of litigation or arbitration or any other way of dispute resolution. Also it is to be mentioned well in advance that which state’s law will govern the arising disputes and what would be the jurisdiction to solve or try such disputes in.

IMPORTANT PROVISIONS UNDER LAW PERTAINING TO PATENT LICENSING AGREEMENT:-

Here under we would deal with the aspects of provisions pertaining to patent licensing agreement and the other aspects of the mentioned provisions would not be discussed.

  1. PROVISIONS UNDER THE PATENTS ACT, 1970
  • SECTION 68 [5]– Patent Licensing Agreement is valid only when it is in Writing and is Duly Executed :

License of a patent shall be valid only when it is in the form of a written agreement, between the licensor and the licensee, which is duly executed. Such written agreement must be presented in form of a Document wherein all the terms and conditions are implicitly or explicitly incorporated. Also the terms and conditions of the Patent Licensing Agreement or we can say Document; play a pivotal role in defining the rights and obligations of the licensor and the licensee.

  • SECTION 69 [6]– Application for Registration of title of Licensee :

By Licensee – According to Section 69(1), where any person becomes entitled as a Licensee, he or she shall apply in writing in the prescribed manner to the Controller for the registration of his or her title or registration of notice of his or her interest in the register of the Controller.

By Licensor – According to Section 69(2), without prejudice to the provision of section 69(1), an application for the registration of the title of any person who gets entitled by the virtue of a patent license may be made by the licensor in a prescribed manner to the controller.

  • SECTION 70 [7]– Power of registered proprietor or grantee to issue Licenses for Patent :

This provision of the Patents Act, 1970 empowers the registered proprietor or the grantee to issue licenses for the patent and to give effectual receipts in lieu of consideration received by them for grant of any such license pertaining to patent.

  1. PROVISIONS UNDER THE PATENTS RULES, 2003
  • RULE 90 [8]– Application of Registration of :

Title of Licensee as per Section 69 of Patents Act, 1970 – According to Rule 90(1), Application for registration of the title of Licensee referred in Section 69(1) and Section 69(2) of the Patents Act, 1970 shall be made, in Form 16 to the Controller; within a period of 6 months from the date of execution of patent licensing agreement.

Document of Patent Licensing Agreement as per Section 68 of Patents Act, 1970 -According to Rule 90(2), Application for registration of any document (i.e. document which may affect the rights and obligations of a patentee in any way), like Document of Patent Licensing Agreement, shall be made in Form 16 to the Controller within a period of 6 months from the date of execution of patent licensing agreement.

  • RULE 91 [9]– Power of Controller to direct or call for any document or proof pertaining to Patent Licensing Agreement Application :

This provision of Patents Rules, 2003 empowers the Controller to direct or call for any document like Patent Licensing Agreement as claimed in Applications under Rule 90(1) or Rule 90(2) or any other proof or written consent as he may require. The required documents or proofs must be accompanied by the 2 copies (i.e. copies which is certified to be true copies by the applicant or his agent) of the Document, like Patent Licensing Agreement, for which such Application was made.

 

This Rule of Patents Rules, 2003 prescribes the way in which the Controller will register the entry of title of licensee or of document of Patent Licensing Agreement in its Register only after the receipt and complete enquiry of the application made by the applicants under Rule 90(1) or Rule 90(2).

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CONCLUSION:-

Licensing a patent invokes registration of a written agreement between the licensor and licensee. The aim of execution of agreement is, to reflect the intention of the parties for licensing a patent and; to gather specifications and details, which they have agreed to, in form of written agreement. It is mandatory that the Patent licensing Agreement is written and is registered in the Register of Patents. Clauses of patent licensing agreement plays an important role in deciding the disputes (if any) or to prevent any disputes between licensor and licensee. Even though it is an easy way to license a patent through a definite agreement, but the parties must pay utmost attention while chalking out the terms and conditions of the patent licensing agreement as this is the only document which shall define the grundnorms for the parties for patent licensing i.e. define the rights and obligations of the parties who agrees to patent licensing. So while preparing Patent Licensing Agreement keep your all senses wide open!!!

[1] Refer to “http://www.ipindia.nic.in/writereaddata/Portal/IPOAct/1_31_1_patent-act-1970-11march2015.pdf” for complete Sections, P.6.

[2] Id. at P.5

[3] Refer to case – National Research Development Corp. (NDRC) vs. ABS Plastics Ltd. ,[April 2009]

[4] Supra 1 at P.55

[5] Supra 1 at P.56

[6] Ibid.

[7] Supra 1 at P.57

[8] Refer to http://www.ipindia.nic.in/writereaddata/Portal/IPORule/1_70_1_The-Patents-Rules-2003-Updated-till-23-June-2017.pdf for complete Rules, P.38

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid.

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Analysis Of Trademark Laws In USA, UAE, And Germany

By: Jeetu Kanwar

INTRODUCTION

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the body which has setup certain rules and regulations for governance of Intellectual Property (IP) services throughout the world. It mainly includes 193 countries which are part of United Nations. [1]

Trademarks are part of such intellectual property. It simply helps to differentiate between the goods of the manufacturers. It helps to distinguish goods with similar or identical owners. Also through trademark one is able  to protect his intellectual property. It confers legal rights upon the owner of the trademark.

Here comes the role of trademark laws. It helps to protect owner of the trademark. An owner can bring a legal action against the other person who causes trademark infringement. Such personal is liable for punishment. The owner of trademark can take legal action which is both civil as well as criminal action. Thus the person is liable to be punished with fine or imprisonment or both.

Different countries have their own regimes of trademark laws. They are governed by various laws and have different set of rules and regulations to counter trademark infringement. This makes the rules to differ from country to country and region to region. Thus there are several blend of regulations making trademark laws unique in nature.

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In this write-up trademarks laws of following countries are explained and a parallel analysis is drawn for a better understanding:

  1. S.A
  2. A.E

TRADEMARK LAWS IN USA

In its basic essence trademark law in the USA is made to protect and distinguish goods made by one person from that of another manufacturer. This helps to protect and differentiate similar kinds of goods and to give due credit to the producer. In the USA most of the service marks originate from their use and thus are totally identical from their mere use in different setups.  In order to protect the mark, it is always suggested to either register the trademark with the federal government and if that is not possible then the mark should mandatorily be registered with the state government to avoid any kind of misuse or infringement.[2]

A trademark in the USA is infringed when another person uses the same mark in a manner such that it likely causes confusion among the common masses.  Several people can use mark but only when it doesn’t cause any confusion among common people. [3]

Next thing to consider here is about the procedure to register the trademark in the USA[4]

All the application with regard to the registration of trademark needs to be moved to the United States patent and trademark office.  After this application, the trademarks are checked for their resistibility. If a mark is found eligible for registration and fulfills all the criteria then it is published in the official gazette. In the case of use based applications, they published and if are not opposed then registration is issued providing detail of the expiration period.

In the case of intent use based application, a notice of allowance is issued which is valid up to a period of three years from the issue of the notice of allowance.  After which registration is issued.

An application for registration must include the following:

  1. It should include the name and address of the owner who wishes to register.
  2. It should include the applicant’s citizenship or residence or place of organization.
  3. It should include details of the goods on which the mark needs to be used.
  4. It should include the details where the mark was first used.
  5. It should include a declaration that needs to be signed and the application needs to reveal the specimen and drawing of the mark.
  6. It should include the meaning of the words which are not in English.
  7. It should also include a claim declaring a prior use of the mark which the applicant is trying to register in order to ascertain whether anyone else is using the same.
  8. It should also include a fee for the goods which come under the category of international goods.

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After due verification and completion of the application for registration of a trademark, the United States Trademark and patent office mails the certification of the registration to the owner of the trademark.

TRADEMARK LAWS IN UAE

Government of UAE has taken strict measures and provisions for the protection of their intellectual property especially trademark. There are stringent provisions for the regulation of trademark laws in UAE. Trademarks in UAE are protected by Federal Trademark Laws, which ensures proper supervision of trademarks and their misuse.[5]

REGISTRATION AND INFRINGEMENT OF TRADEMARK IN UAE

A trademark is widely used to distinguish between goods of one trader from that of another.[6] Registration of trademark in UAE is done by forwarding an application to the trademark section of the ministry of economy and commerce. After due completion of application and procedure for registration, the trademark is registered with the ministry. If in case any other person or organization or other entity uses the same registered trademark then it will amount to trademark infringement.

In this, the owner of the trademark can file a suit or take legal action for trademark infringement. Thus such trademark infringement is liable to be punished and the owner of the trademark can claim compensation for the same.

The trademark law also provides criminal remedies for trademark infringement which is in terms of imprisonment or fine or both. One can also take action against trademark infringement through the means of Dubai customs which filters the trademark infringement cases and products which infringe the trademark. This makes the trademark protection of products more efficient and well protected.[7]

Thus to ensure the rights over a trademark, it is important to register your trademark in UAE. This protects business innovations through the means of a trademark.[8] The registration of a trademark provides validity and protection in case another person copies or uses the same trademark which is similar to yours. If your trademark is not registered in UAE then you cannot take legal action against another business and enterprise.

TRADEMARK LAWS IN GERMANY

All German trademark applications need to be filed at the German Trademark and Patent Office (DMPA).[9] German trademarks are governed by the trademark act, which is implemented by European Union trademark directives. [10]  Trademarks that are not opposed by DMPA and fulfill all the standards are qualified to be registered as a trademark.  All German trademarks cover the entire federal republic of Germany[11]

In Germany, there are specialized ordinary courts for enforcement of trademarks infringement. They are also competent to tackle the disputes related to unfair competition and domain name dispute resolution policy.

PROCEDURE FOR TRADEMARK REGISTRATION IN GERMANY

One of the steps for the trademark registration procedure is to publish the trademark in the official gazette for three months.  During these three months, anyone in Germany with a similar or identical trademark may file an opposition against the trademark published in the official gazette. No trademark gets an extension from this period of three months.

Opposition to the trademark may be filed by the owner of the already registered trademark or owner of trademark who previously got such a trademark registered. In Germany, a trademark opposition is filed in writing and a nominal fee is to be paid.[12] The German trademark office will see whether the trademark complies with the standards of the trademark.

In Germany trademarks are valid for a period of three years from the date of filing of the application. If the owner wants to do renewal of the trademark then same can be done by filing an application for renewal one year earlier from the date of expiry of the trademark. Also there is a provision of a grace period which consists of six months. In this grace period a renewal application can be filed by paying late fees.[13]

It is mandatory to use the trademark within the five years after registration. If such trademark is not used then it is liable to be cancelled on the ground of non use. Such

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CONCLUSION

Through analysis of trademark laws of different countries, it can be safely concluded trademark registration is of utmost importance. It is vital to know that trademark registration provides various privileges to the owner of the trademark. Registration helps to tackle the problem of trademark infringement.

  1. Trademark infringement is one such common problem which is prevalent in almost every country. Thus to give due credit the owner of trademark, registration is a must.
  2. It can be safely concluded that all these three countries have their own set of statutes to govern trademark laws. Though they different rules but all rules have same essence which to punish the wrongdoer.
  3. Also the procedure for registration of trademark tend to vary when we move from one country to another but the basic outlines which includes publication of trademark in the official gazette remains the same.
  4. Another key aspect to keep in mind is that in all these three countries trademark is registered for a certain time period and after the expiry of that period the trademark need to be file for renewal.

Thus this analysis of trademark laws is essential in order to gain insight about variety of laws prevalent among other countries. This helps to get better understanding of different laws. Hence it helps to understand all kinds of dimensions of trademark laws.

 

 

 

[1] https://www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/

[2] https://www.bitlaw.com/

[3] https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/documents/tmlaw.

[4] https://iclg.com/practice-areas/trade-marks-laws-and-regulations/usa

[5] http://diazreus.com/protecting-your-trademark-in-the-uae

[6] https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws

[7] https://www.mondaq.com/trademark/736132/new-trademark-application-procedures-in-uae

[8] https://www.dlapiperintelligence.com/goingglobal/intellectual-property/

[9] https://thelawreviews.co.uk/edition/the-trademarks-law-review-edition-3/

[10] https://www.worldtrademarkreview.com/portfolio-management/trademark-procedures-and-strategies-germany

[11] https://iclg.com/practice-areas/trade-marks-laws-and-regulations/germany

[12] https://www.lawyersgermany.com/register-a-trademark-in-germany

[13] https://igerent.com/trademark-registration-germany